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Splines are irreplaceable in high-speed aviation fields due to their simplicity, reliability, and high specific power. Aviation splines are not only subjected to severe operating mechanical loads, but also sometimes operate under grease-lubricated and non-lubricated environments. All of this results in aviation splines suffering widespread failures. Since the 1960s, many researchers have carried out much research on aviation splines. The wide range of research topics demonstrates the technical challenges of understanding aviation spline. This paper reviews the research of aviation spline from the aspects of failure form, fatigue strength, surface contact stress, effects of lubrication, and misalignment on wear, as well as experiments. Relevant research shows crowned splines can mitigate the spline wear process induced by angular misalignment, and oil-lubricating splines experience almost no wear. This paper also looks forward to the future development directions of aviation splines.
Couplings are widely used in rotating machinery to transmit torque from driving machinery to driven machinery. There are various kinds of couplings. Among them, spline couplings make the structure simpler, more reliable and compact, and easier to install. Compared with other couplings, spline couplings have a larger contact area, higher bearing capacity, higher reliability, smaller stress concentration, and smaller strength weakening of shafts and hubs. Splines also perform well in terms of centering and guiding, which makes it simpler to correct installation errors and misalignments. As a result, splines are frequently utilized in transmission and connecting devices for rotating machinery [1].
Aviation splines bear complicated and severe torque loads during operation [3], including constant torque, periodic torque, additional cyclic torque, transient peak torque, and impact torque. In addition to these above torque loads, aviation splines also bear other mechanical loads, mainly including resonance load, misalignment load, and contact and friction loads. Furthermore, aviation splines often operate under conditions lacking lubrication and cooling. As a result, they often suffer conventional wear, fretting wear, corrosion, creep, fusion, and fatigue; moreover, they also sometimes suffer tooth and hub fractures.
According to a survey of the US Navy aircraft maintenance in the 1970s, 40% of fixed-wing aircraft and 70% of rotary-wing aircraft have spline problems. Aiming at the problem of misalignment contact wear and the failure of aviation splines, the US Navy maintenance warehouse has carried out systematic, comprehensive treatments of it, which has increased the mean time between failures of aviation splines from less than 500 h to more than 2000 h [2,4]. Since the 1970s, much research has been done on the design, contact, wear, fatigue, strength, and reliability of aviation splines. This paper reviews the relevant research from the following aspects: failure form, fatigue strength, surface contact stress, effects of lubrication and misalignment on wear, and experiments.
According to the tooth profile of the spline, splines can be divided into involute spline, rectangle spline, triangle spline, and circular arc spline. As shown in Figure 1a, the tooth profile of the involute spline has an involute curve. The tooth of the involute spline always experiences a radial force, which makes the involute spline automatically self-centering and further guarantees that every tooth bears the same load. The involute spline has a high load capacity and is widely applied for connection with high load and high centering accuracy requirements. As shown in Figure 1b, the centering accuracy of the rectangle spline can make sure by minor diameter centering; the rectangle spline is used for connections with static or light loads. As shown in Figure 1c, the internal spline tooth profile of the triangle spline is a triangular shape, and the external spline is an involute shape with a 45 pressure angle. Triangle splines are mostly used for light load and static connections with small diameters, especially for thin-walled parts [2]. As shown in Figure 1d, the tooth profile of the circular arc spline is circular. The contact area and tooth thickness of the circular arc spline are much bigger than those of the involute spline, which effectively reduces fretting wear and stress concentration and improves load capacity. The circular arc spline is mainly used for connection with large misalignments.
According to the body shape of the spline, splines can be divided into external splines with an open end (see Figure 2a) and an adjacent shoulder (see Figure 2b) and internal splines with an open end (see Figure 2c) and an adjacent shoulder (see Figure 2d). These different spline body shapes influence the selection of mechanical processing technology. In addition, the spline may also be designed with a taper along the axis direction, generally with a 0.54 taper. This design can reduce the maximum stress of the adjacent shaft by 15%. In other words, it can increase the fatigue load capacity of splines by 15% [3].
Splines can be divided into single-stage and multi-stage spline coupling, depending on their functions. The multi-stage spline can reduce torque fluctuation to a certain level and compensate for significant misalignment. Figure 3 shows two representative multi-stage splines (i.e., multi-stage splines with friction plates or a spline sleeve). As shown in Figure 3a, when applying an axial force on the multi-stage spline with friction plates, contact and friction would generate between the internal and external splines, which further transmit torques between the spline shaft and the spline sleeve [5]. As shown in Figure 3b, this type of multi-stage spline inserts a spline sleeve (ring) between the internal and external spline. Such a spline sleeve can be made of various materials, such as metal and nylon [6].
When a flexible spline is not perfectly aligned, some rocking motion can occur, resulting in spline wear. Flexible splines are widely used in aero engine accessories, such as floating/semi-floating central driving shaft splines and fuel pump splines, as shown in Figure 6 [6]. These floating splines are typical flexible splines with two ends fixed to different boxes. Straight-tooth flexible splines can accommodate only a minor angle misalignment before wear becomes a significant issue. Splines such as crowned splines are advised for large misalignments to reduce stress concentration and spline wear.
Tooth modifications along the axial orientation are often used to improve the contact properties of misaligned splines. These tooth modifications can prevent stress concentration. In general, tooth modifications are performed on the external spline, and the internal spline remains unchanged. Splines with tooth tip centering are usually modified in the top axial direction, while splines with tooth side centering are usually modified in the tooth axial direction and maintain an involute profile. Splines with the second type of tooth modification are called involute crowned splines, abbreviated as crowned splines [10]. As shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8, the crowned tooth surface of crowned splines enhances the friction and wear condition of the tooth surface and reduces noise compared to common splines. It also prevents edge extrusion and stress concentration misuse in a misaligned state. In addition, the internal and external splines are conveniently disassembled and assembled due to the flared shape of the external tooth end.
Crowned splines are very useful for angular misalignments. However, the crowned splines are not suitable for aligned conditions. Under aligned conditions, splines with extensive crowned modifications would suffer high stress concentration and potential tooth breaking. For aligned conditions, as shown in the second diagram of Figure 7 and Figure 8, crowned splines have smaller contact areas compared with straight splines. Straight splines have larger contact areas to decrease contact stress.
There are several classifications of aircraft splines from differing perspectives. Aviation splines can also be divided into spray-lubricated, oil-mist-lubricated, grease-lubricated, and non-lubricated splines, as well as continuous-lubricated and clearance-lubricated splines.
The primary causes of spline failure include wear, damage, or excessive surface stress due to vibration, material, lubrication, misalignment, and surface cleanliness. The secondary causes of spline failure include fractures resulting from overload, interference, and fatigue [11]. Worse yet, inaccessibility due to space constraints and design issues makes spline repair and replacement difficult and maintenance expensive. The main failure modes of splines with different lubrication methods and extremely misaligned splines are shown in Table 1 [12].
The statistics in Table 1 show that failure modes are different even when splines are lubricated with grease and oil. Common failure phenomena in splines and their corresponding causes are shown in Table 2. 2ff7e9595c
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